• Personal pronouns

	Subject pronouns		Object pronouns
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	I	We	Me	Us
2nd person	You	You	You	You
3rd person	He	They	Him	Them
	She		Her
	It		It

We use personal pronouns to replace nouns when it’s clear who or what are talking about

Use as the subject pronouns as the subjects of verbs (He is in the kitchen)

Use as the object pronouns as the objects of verbs and prepositions

(I like him –verb) (I’ve written to her –preposition)

• Possessive adjectives and pronouns

	Adjectives		Pronouns
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	My	Our	Mine	Ours
2nd person	Your	Your	Yours	Yours
3rd person	His	Their	His	Theirs
	Her		Hers
	Its		-

Before a noun to say whom the noun belongs to (I can’t find my keys)

We use possessive pronouns without a noun, when the noun is understood

“My own/your own/his own...” to emphasize that some thing belongs to only one person it’s not shared

“On my own/on your own/on his own...” (=by myself/by yourself...) mean “alone” or “without help”

• Reflexive pronouns

	Subject pronouns
	Singular	Plural
1st person	Myself	Ourselves
2nd person	Yourself	Yourselves
3rd person	Himself	Themselves
	Herself
	Itself

The subject and the object of a clause are the same

- enjoy yourself: have a good time

- help yourself: take for yourself

- by myself/by yourself... mean “alone” or “without help”

We don’t normally use reflexive pronouns to talk about actions which people usually do to themselves

• Relative pronouns

	People	People or things	Things
As subjects	Who	That	Which
As objects	Whom	That	Which

Commas are required to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence if the clause is not essential

The pronoun “that” never follows a comma because “that” is only for essential relative clauses

• Wh questions (Wh-q)

What/where/who/whose/when/why/which/how

- We form questions by changing the position of the subject (eg she, they, we) and the auxiliary verb (eg be, have, can). (She is reading. What is she reading?)

- We form questions with the “full verb be” in the same way. (He is here. Why is he here?)

- We form questions with “have got” by changing the position of the subject and have. (He has got your key. Why has he got your key?)

- If there are two or more auxiliary verbs, we change the position of the subject and the first auxiliary. (He has been reading. What has he been reading?)

In the present simple and past simple there is no auxiliary verb, so we use “do/does” in present simple questions and “did” in past simple questions. (They start work. When do they start work?)

Note that after “do/does/did” the verb is always the infinitive without “to” (eg start, go, arrive) except for infinitives of purpose (main verb omitted) (did he go to the store?)

 

• Subject and object questions

- “Who” can ask about the subject or the object. Compare:

When “who” asks about the subject, the verb has the same form as a statement (eg loves, phoned, is helping), and we do not use “do, does” in the present simple or “did” in the past simple.

- We can also use “what, which, how many” to ask about the subject.

(What made that noise? → It was the cat.) (How many people went to the party? → About fifty.)

• Questions words

- We use “what” with a noun (eg what color, what nationality) or without a noun to ask mostly about things. (What color is your car? What is Ken doing?)

- We can sometimes use “what” to ask about people. (What actors do you like?)

- We use “who” without a noun to ask about people. (Who is your favorite actor? Who told you the news?)

- We use “which” with or without a noun to ask about things or people when there is a restricted choice. (Which color do you like best?)

But we often use “who” even when there is a restricted choice. (Who do you prefer?)

- We often use “which one” instead of “who or what” when there is a restricted choice. (Which one do you prefer - Robert de Niro or Dustin Hoffman?) or we can use “which two/three...”

We can also use “which of…” (Which of these colors do you like best?)

- We use “whose” with or without a noun to ask about possession. (Whose book is this? It's Maria's.)

- We use “where” to ask about place. (Where are you going on holiday?)

- We use “when” to ask about time. (When were you born?)

- We use “why” to ask about reason or purpose. (Why are you late?)

- We use “how” to ask “in what way?” (How did you get here?)

- We use “how” in greetings and introductions, and to ask about state of health. (How do you do?)

- We use “how” with adjectives (e.g. old, tall) and adverbs (e.g. often, well), and with “much and many”. (How old are you? / How often do you go to the cinema? / How much money have you got with you?)

• Negative questions

- We normally form negative questions with the contraction “n't”. We put “n't” after an auxiliary verb (eg be, have, can). (Aren't you watching TV?)

- We also form negative questions by putting “n 't” after the full verb “be” (Aren't you Simon Robinson? / Haven't they got any money?)

- If there are two or more auxiliary verbs, “n't” goes after the first auxiliary. (Haven't you been listening?)

- In the present simple and past simple there is no auxiliary verb, so we use “do/does” (in the present simple) and “did” (in the past simple) before “n't”. (Don't you smoke? / Didn't they go to the cinema?)

- The word order is different when we use the full form “not” instead of “n't” (Are you not watching?)

The forms with “not” are more formal and not so common. (but used when the “not” is being emphasized)

- We often use “negative questions” to express surprise, disappointment or annoyance. (Don't you smoke?)

Negative questions are common in exclamations. (Isn't it a terrible day!)

We also use negative questions when we think we know something and we are asking for confirmation. (Aren't you Simon Robinson?)

- Notice the meanings of “yes, no” in answers to negative questions. ('Didn't they see the film?' 'Yes.' (= Yes, they saw the film.)/'No.' (= No, they didn't see the film.)

• Tag question

Normally (+),(-) or (-),(+) (You know the tag Q, don’t you?)

Surprise or don’t believe (-),(-) or (+),(+) (You’ll stop joking, will you)

 

• Modal verbs

 

Possibility and probability
Present/future form	Past form
Could+V1 Couldn’t/could not	Could have+V3	Specific possibilities Means ”know how”	He could be in the canteen.
	Could have+V3	It was possible for something to happen, but it didn’t	We could have taken a taxi, but we decided to walk home instead.
Might+V1 Might not	Might have+V3	Specific possibilities	It might snow this year.
May+V1 May not	May have+V3	Specific possibilities	It may snow this year.
Can+V1 Can’t/can not	-	General or theoretical possibilities Means “be able to”	The temperature here can reach 35°.
Should+V1 Shouldn’t/should not	-	Stronger possibility	The car keys should be there.

 

Ability and willingness
Present/future form	Past form
Can+V1 Can’t/can not	Could+V1	General ability With perception Means “be able to”	When I was younger, I could touch my nose with my feet. I can smell something burning.
Be able to+V1 Be unable to	Was able to+V1 Managed to+V1	Ability for a specific event Same as “can” when talking about an ability in the present  “be unable to” express an incapacity to do something	Although he was badly injured, he was able to crawl his way to safety.
Will+V1 Won’t/will not	Wouldn’t	Willing to do something (negative form expresses refusal to do)	I’ll do the washing up, you sit down and have a rest.

 

Permission and request
Present/future form	Past form
Can/could+V1 Can’t/can not Couldn’t/could not	-	Permission and request Means “be able to”	Could you give me a hand?
May/might+V1 May not Might not	-	Permission	May I borrow your newspaper?
Will/would+V1 Won’t/will not Wouldn’t/would not	-	Request	Will you just wait here for a minute?
“Might, could, would” are more polite than “may, can, will”

 

Obligation and necessity
Present/future form	Past form
Must+V1 Mustn’t/must not	Must have+V3 Had to+V3	Obligation in writing Advice or recommendation	Applicants must be over eighteen to vote. You must go to see it.
Must be+Ving Can’t	Must have+V3	Logical necessity (negative form is “can’t”)	They must be having a party. That can’t be your mother, she looks too young.
Will be+Ving Won’t be/will not be	Will have+V3	Logical necessity	Is that the doorbell? It will be the pizza delivery.
Have (got) to+V1 Don’t have (got) to	Had to+V3	Talk about obligation	You have (got) to be eighteen to vote.
Should+V1 Shouldn’t/should not	Should have+V3	Talk about the right thing to do (There will be a bad result if it is not followed)	You should do carefully. We usually use “Do you think I/we should…?” rather than “Should I/we…?”
Ought to+V1 Ought not to	Ought to have+V3	Talk about the right thing to do (same as “should”)	You ought to be in the bed.

 

 

 

Semi Modals
Used to+V1 didn’t use to+V1 never use to+V1	Refers to a habitual action in the past that does not take place now To describe a state rather than an action	I used to smoke (now I don’t smoke)
Would rather+V1	Talk about preferences Same as “would prefer+to+V1” “would prefer” can be followed by nouns, but “would rather” can’t	S+would rather+V1 S1+would rather+S2+V2 S+would prefer+object+to+V1
Had better	For giving strong advice which would have serious consequences if not followed	had better+V1 (without to)
Need (to) Needn’t/don’t need to	To convey necessity Sometimes “want” is used in place of “need”	Need(s)+Ving/need(s) to+V1 My jacket needs cleaning (passive) → my jacket needs to be cleaned You needn’t bother (=It’s not necessary to do something.) Need I say more? (=Isn’t it obvious?)
Dare Daren’t/don’t dare	Used in the negative and question forms to mean have the courage to do something	I daren’t tell him the truth in case he fires me. I dare say (=expect) How dare you… (=I am very shocked/angry by…) Don’t you dare make fun of the way I speak! (a strong warning not to do something)
To be capable of	“capable” means the same as “able” Talk about a person possessing the personal qualities needed to do something	S+to be+capable of+Ving able to do something capable of doing something
Shall Be going to	Advice/opinion/suggestion Alternative form of “will”
Be supposed to	Present form is “am/is/are supposed to” To indicate an unfulfilled obligation Similar to “should” Past form is “was/were supposed to” To indicate an unfulfilled obligation in the past Same meaning as “should have+V3”
Be to+V1	To convey command	You are to finish your dinner.
To be bound to	Equivalent to “to be certain to” To express a strong sense of certainty	You’re bound to/certain to succeed as long as you produce what people want
Be permitted to
Be allowed to

 

 

Present/Future	Present continuous	Past	Past continuous
Modals+V1	Modals+be+Ving	Modals+have+V3	Modals+have been+Ving

 

 

Must	90% sure
Should	60% probability
Could	50% probability		Active	Passive
May	45% probability		S+modals+V1	S+modals+be+V3
Might	40% probability
Can’t	99% impossible

 

Can May	Could Might
V1	V2
Present Real Informal Near	Past Unreal Formal Far
Immediate Possibility	Remote

 

Must Should Can Will	Have to/Need to Ought to/be supposed to Be able to Going to
No infinitive Always present Meaning not clean Subjective	To infinitive Any tense Meaning is clear and certain Objective

• Mind

For making a polite/formal request

Would+S+mind+gerund+complement (Would you mind closing the window?)

Would+S+mind+if+S+V2+complement (Would you mind if I closed the window?)

In an informal situation (Do you mind not smoking?)

• Mind/tired of+Ving

“don’t mind” means “it’s not a problem” (I don’t mind getting up early)

“tired of” means “don’t like” (I’m tired of getting up early)

Also we can use: (don’t) like, (don’t) understand, (don’t) appreciate, be (un)happy about, (dis)agree with, (dis)approve of

• Look forward to+Ving+noun

To express pleasure we feel now when thinking about a future event that is “certain” to happen

S+be+look(ing) forward to+Ving+…

S+be+look(ing) forward to+noun+…

As a formula for ending formal letters

(I look forward to/am looking forward to hearing from you...)

• Wait for...to

Wait for+object+infinitive with to

(I’m waiting for you to tell me what’s wrong)

• When talking unreal/distant/remote far things

Have/has → had

Am/are → were

Is → was

V1 → V2

• Preferences

Would rather/sooner+V1

Would rather+be+Ving (present)

Would rather/sooner+have+V3 (prefer in the past but couldn’t have done)

Would rather+S+V2 (present)

Would rather+S+had+V3 (past)

Prefer+noun+to+noun

Prefer+Ving+to+Ving

Prefer+to+V1+...+rather than+V1+...

Would rather+V1+...+than+V1+...

Like+noun+better than+noun

• Passive

We use the passive when we don’t know/don’t interest in/don’t want to say who or what does something

More polite way to say something

We sometimes use “get (+V3)” instead of “be (+V3)” to make passive when we talk about things that happen by accident or unexpectedly (was/were → got, am/is/are → get)

The tense normally doesn’t change

In the passive “to be” must be in the same tense as the verb in the active phrase

Active sentence	Passive sentence
You can see it there	It can be seen there
She is buying a car	A car is being bought
He speaks English	English is spoken
He received a letter	A letter was received
We were following a thief	A thief was being follwed
Mary had seen us there	We had been seen there
I shall be learning French	French will be being learnt

Passive sentences+by+who/what does something

Passive sentences+with+instrument/material

• Allow

Often used in passive form

It provides a common way of expressing rules and regulations

Similar to the verb “permit” (smoking is not allowed) (You’re allowed to bring that)

 

• Possessive `s

Show the relationship of the person to something/someone (Sally’s)

The names of animals (a dog’s life)

A group of people or a place where peoples work, live, ... (club’s rules)

Some expressions of time (yesterday’s newspaper)

After a singular noun → sally’s

After a plural noun ending in -s → parents’

After a plural noun not ending in -s → men’s

• Reported speech

The tense normally moves back

S+said (that) → tense goes back

S+says (that) → tense doesn’t change

Say+something

Tell/say+someone+something

We can use “add/answer/object/promise/scream/whisper/complain/announce/protest” like “say”

We can use “assure/remind” like “tell”

- Verbs in the present change into the past

I’m → She was

V1 → V2

I don’t → I didn’t

She has finished → she had finished

- Verbs in the past change in to the past perfect or don’t change

I spoke → I had spoken/I spoke

- Verbs already in the past perfect don’t change

- Modal verbs

Speaker’s word	Reported speech
can	could
will	would
shall	should
may	might
could	don’t change
would	don’t change
should	don’t change
might	don’t change
Must/have to	had to

If we report something that is still true now, we sometimes use the same tense as the speaker

- Pronouns

I → he/she/it

- Adjectives

my → her/him

Speaker’s word	Reported speech
Here	There
This	That/the
Now	Then
Today	That day
Tonight	That night
Tomorrow	The next/following day
Yesterday	The day before/the previous day
Next Monday	The following Monday
Last Monday	The previous Monday

 

- Reported questions

What are you doing? → He wanted to know/asked what they were doing

Don’t use question mark (?)

If there is no question word (what/who/when/...) we can use “if” or “whether” to introduce a reported question

Are you cold? → I asked if he was cold

 

• Quantity

 

- Some Before plural/uncountable nouns Mostly in affirmative sentences We can use “some” after “if” Make a contrast (some people)	- Any Before plural/uncountable nouns Mostly in negative sentences After words with a negative meaning “without, never, seldom, rarely, hardly” After words with a negative meaning “whichever, whatever” We can use “any” after “if” In open questions (don’t expect a particular answer) “it doesn’t matter which” or “whichever you like” Use “any more/any longer” in negative sentences, “no longer” in positive sentences to mean “after then”
- Much Uncountable nouns Mostly in question and negative sentences Often affirmative sentences after too/as/so/very	- Many Plural countable nouns Mostly in question and negative sentences Often affirmative sentences after “too/as/so/very”
- Most Means “much/many” “the most” means “maximum”	- A lot of/lots of Uncountable/plural countable nouns Affirmative sentences
- (a) little Uncountable nouns Not much but enough “little” means “not much, almost no”	- (a) few Plural countable nouns Not many but enough  “few” means “not many, almost no” “a few” means “several/some”
- Several Plural countable nouns “several” means “a few/some”	- A number of Plural countable nouns “a few” or “a group of people/things” Use “a small number of”, “a large number of” for emphasis “the number of” means “how much something”
- A small amount of Uncountable nouns Same meaning with “a little” Also we can use “a great amount of, a huge amount of, a huge deal of, a good deal of”	- Plenty of Uncountable/plural countable nouns Same meaning with “a lot of, quite much/many”
- Enough Uncountable/plural countable nouns Sufficient, adequate	- No Before a noun “not a” or “not any”
- None None is a pronoun We use it alone, without a noun Before “my/this/the.../us/them...” we use “none of”	- All With plural words Uncountable or countable nouns Normally use alone to mean “everybody/everyone” Don’t often mean “everything” Expression: “all about”
- Every All without an exception Singular words Countable nouns When we think of a whole group	- Whole “complete” or “every part of” Normally use with singular countable nouns Always use “the/my/this” before “whole” “a whole” before (singular) nouns Don’t normally use with uncountable nouns
- Each When we think of the members of a group Separately, one at time	- Both Two of a couple Before plural countable noun Has a positive sense and takes a plural verb Both of: before “the/your/these...” but we often leave out “of” Both...and...
- Either (Either...or...) One of a couple Before singular countable noun Either of: before “the/your/these...” or before plural object pronouns (you/us/them...)	- Neither (Neither...nor...) None of a couple Before singular countable noun Has a negative sense and takes a singular verb Neither of: before “the/your/these...” or before plural object pronouns (you/us/them...) After “neither of” we can use a singular or plural verb

 

• Causative

- to have/get something done

S(+to be/modals)+have/has/get+...+object+V3+...

To emphasize the fact of who has ordered or requested the action (He had his kitchen remodeled)

Talk about which we arranges for someone else to do something for us (I’m having a garage built at the moment)

 

- to have/to make somebody do something

S+to be+have/make+S+V1+object+...

Have → to persuade/convince somebody to do something

Make → to force somebody to do something (The teacher has made the students write the same letter again)

 

- to get somebody to do something (with “to”)

S+to be+get+S+to+V1+object+...

(Tom is going to get somebody to paint the walls)

 

- to have somebody do something (without “to”)

S+to be+get+S+V1+object+... (He had an electrician repair the owen)

• One(s)

Instead of repeating a noun

Use “a/an” with “one” if there is an adjective (I want a blue one)

After the demonstrative adjectives (this one)

In questions (which one...)

After each (each one goes different way)

• Time

at+a time of the day (at noon)

On weekends	→	In US
At the weekend	→	Outside of the US

at+weekends/public holiday periods (at Christmas time)

in+a part of the day (in the morning) (but we say at night)

in+longer periods (months/seasons/years/...) (in the 19^th century)

on+a day (on Sunday)

on+a day+a part of day (on Sunday morning)

on+a date (on 4^th July)

 

We don’t use at/in/on before next/last/this/every/all/each/some/any/one/tomorrow/yesterday

We normally leave out “at” when asking “what time”

We use “in” to talk about a period of time in the future

We also use “in” to say how long something takes (in twenty minutes)

“on time” means “at exactly the right time” (in my school, the classes always start on time)

“in time” means “early enough” (He discovered the fire in time to stop it spreading)

“at the end” means “at the point where something stops” (at the end of the film I felt very sad)

“in the end” means “finally” or “after some time” (we couldn’t decide what to do yesterday evening in the end we decide to stay at home)

 

- In

To refer to a period of time (in the summer)

 

- During

To refer to a period of time (during the summer)

To say that something continues all through a period

To refer to an activity eg a visit or a meal

During says when something happens → during+noun

 

- For

With a period of time to say how long something continues (for ten days)

With the present perfect to talk about things that have continued over a period (for two hours)

 

- Since

With the present perfect to talk about things that have continued from a point in time until the present (Since 1970)

 

- While

The same meaning as “during” → while+clause

Similar to “a short time”

Use “a short while” to emphasize the shortness of the time

 

- By

To mean “not later than”

 

- Until (till)

To mean “up to the time when”

“till then” means “after now”

“till now” means up to now”

 

- Ago

Is an adverb meaning “before now” (two hours ago) (how long ago...)

Always use with a past tense

- Before

Means “before a past time”

 

- Still

“as late as now or then”, “later than expected”

Before a full verb

After be or auxiliary verb

After the subject in negative sentences; express impatience or surprise (they still haven’t paid it)

 

- Yet

“up to now or then”

Only in questions or negative sentences

In negative short answers after not (not yet)

 

- Already

“by now or then”, “sooner than expected”

Before a full verb

After be or auxiliary verb

 

- When/as/while/whenever/every time/the moment/the minute/the day/anytime

Happen at the same time

 

- When/as soon as/before/after/once/by the time

Happen one after the other

 

- Scarcely(hardly)...when/no sooner...than/just as/directly/immediately

Happen one just after the other

 

- Long after/long before

Happen one long after the other

 

- Until (till)

Describe a situation in progress

Up to the time when

In future we can use “by”

  

• Place

 

Dimension	Position	Direction
0 D (not touch)	Use “be”	Always use “to”
	at (no connection, only near) away from (far)	to/towards away from
1 D (line)	on/off	on(onto)/off
2 D (surface)	on/off	on(onto)/off
2 D (border)	in/out (of)	in/into out (of)
3 D (space, volume)	in/out (of)	in/into out (of)

 

 

0 D                                            at (very short time)

 

 

1D/2 D                                     on (day, dates, short time)

 

 

2D/3 D                                     in (months, long time)

 

- In

A place as three dimensional

A place as an area

The place itself (He’s got a flat in Milan)

With buildings, we can often use “at” or “in”

In British English, we use “in” when we just give the name of the street

We use “in” with cars, but “on” with public transport

 

- At

A place as a point or abstract location

With buildings, we can often use “at” or “in” depending on emphasis

We normally prefer “at” when we think of the building quite generally as a place where something happens (at university)

With address, we use “at” when we give the house number (at 42)

 

- On

A place as a surface

A place as a line

We use “in” with cars, but “on” with public transport

• Place and movement

 

   

- Over Higher than Covering (put his hand over his face) Across (walked over)	- Above Higher than The higher	Above   Over
- Under Lower than, covered by We can use “underneath” instead of “under”	- Below Lower than, the lower	Under   Below
- On top of One thing is “over and touching” an other thing
- In front of Front side   - Behind Back side
- Opposite	- Between
- Near	- Next to/beside
- Along	- Across On the other side of, to the other side of
- Over Same mean across, but we prefer over for movement to the other side of something high	- Through
- Up	- Down
- Past	- (a)round also “into all parts of” or “all over (a place)”
- From/to From               To

 

 

- Fall down

Falling to the ground

Falling along an inclined surface such as stairs or a hill

 

- Fall off

Falling from a high object such as table to the ground

 

- Fall over

A tall object (or person) falling to the ground

• Get to = arrive at/in

Arrive in → a country/town

Arrive at → other places

• Transport

- By

by+noun to say how we travel

When we use “my/a/the...” before “car/bus/train...”, we usually don’t use “by”

 

- On

“on foot” meaning “walking”

We use “on” with bicycles/motorbikes and public transport (on a motorbike)

 

- In

We use “in” with cars (in my car)

• Too

“Too” goes before adjectives and adverbs (I won’t go out tonight I’m too tired)

We use “too many” before countable nouns

We use “too much” before uncountable nouns

We can use “too much/many” without a noun

After “too” we can use “for+object”

After “too” we can use the “to+infinite” (It’s too early to have dinner)

We can use the structure “too+for+object+to+infinitive” (It’s too early for us to have dinner)

We can modify “too” with “much/a lot/far(=very much)/a little/a bit/rather” (a bit too fast)

“Too” has the negative meaning “more than necessary” or “more than is good” (too late)

• Enough

“Enough” goes after adjectives and adverbs (we aren’t working quickly enough; we had better hurry)

We use “enough” before countable/uncountable nouns

We can use “enough” without a noun

After “enough” we can use “for+object”

After “enough” we can use the “to+infinite” (He isn’t old enough to drive a car)

We can use the structure “enough+for+object+to+infinitive” (It isn’t large enough for me to wear)

• So

Before an adjective alone, without a noun (don’t be so foolish)

Also use with an adverb (he works so slowly)

We can use “so” with “many/much” (so many people)

After “so” we can use “that clause” to express result

• Such

Before a noun, with or without an adjective (She’s such a nice woman) (don’t be such a fool)

We can use “such” before “a lot (of)” (such a lot of people)

After “such” we can use “that clause” to express result/condition/situation

Use “such as” to give examples

• Reason

- Because/because of/on account of/thanks to/due to/owing to

because...+noun/pronoun/gerund+main clause

Use before a clause, with a subject and verb

We can use “since/as/seeing that/seeing as/for/when/now that/in that/in as much as/as long as/so long as” to mean “because” before a cause (often come at the beginning of sentences)

since/as/...+cause+main clause

• Result

- So/as a result/therefore

To introduce the result of something

Before a clause

“Therefore” can also go before the verb (I therefore took it again)

We also use “as a result/therefore” at the beginning of sentences

“Therefore” is rather formal than the others

 

- So/such/in order/for fear...(that)...

When we talk about the result of something

Use “so/in case” before an adjective or adverb

Use “such/in case” before a noun

Use “lest” to give negative meaning

• Comparison

- like

To describe something

To say that things are similar (like a pig)

To give examples (she enjoys motor sports, like sailing and windsurfing)

As a verb similar to “enjoy”

As a preposition to ask for a general description of someone or something (What is Tom like?)

As a phrasal verb in “look like” when asking for a physical description of someone or something

(What does Tom look like?)

As a phrasal verb in “feel like” when talking about what we want to do at a particular moment

(Do you feel like going out?)

 

- be likely to

S+am/is/are+(un)likely+to+V1

Talk about the probability of something will be happening in the future (It’s likely to snow=It’ll probably snow)

“be hardly likely to” means “definitely will not”

“be highly likely to” means “almost certain to”

 

- as if

Before a subject+verb to say how someone or something seems (you look as if you’re cold)

Use “as if+past tense” to talk about the present when the idea is unreal (my brother sometimes behaves as if he was my father)

In a non formal style we often use “were” instead of “was” to express unreal ideas

We can use “as though” instead of “as if”

In an informal style “like” is sometimes used instead of “as if/though”

 

- as

To describe something or to mean “because” or “since”

“as” is a conjunction, before a clause, with a subject and a verb (nobody else can sing as she can)

 

- as…as

To compare two things that are alike, or to say that two things are equal in value

• as far as ... concerned

The equivalent of saying “about, regarding, concerning, considering”

Start to tell a new sentence meaning “if I have to say something about that topic”

• Comparative, superlative

more+adj+than

the most+adj

 

fairly → quite → rather/pretty → very

                → stronger →

 

a/an → quite a/an, a fairly, a pretty, rather a/an or a rather

“Rather, quite, pretty” can be used before comparatives (rather colder, rather more expensive)

“Quite” can also mean “completely” (the animal was quite dead)

 - With (=having)

To say someone or something has (he is a tall man with brown hair)

 

- In (=wearing)

To say what someone is wearing (he often goes to work in his jeans)

• Have (got)

Means “to own something”

In American English “S+have/has+noun”

In British English “S+have/has+got+noun”

• If clauses

- The first conditional (open present or future conditionals)

if+present tense+future tense (if+present tense+will/going to+V1)

There is a possibility that the situation in the if clause “will happen in the future” or “is true in the present” (if he asks me, I’ll help him)

- The second conditional (unreal present or future conditional)

if+simple past tense+would/could+V1 (use “could” to “possibility”, “would” to “certainly”)

To talk of things “probably won’t happen” or “possibilities that are very remote/far”

Talk about unreal present or future situations (if he asked me, I would help him)

- The third conditional (unreal past conditional)

if+past perfect tense+would/could have+V3

Talk about unreal past situations (if he had asked me, I would have helped him)

- General conditionals

if+present simple tense+present simple tense

Talk about habits and general truths (if he asks me, I always help him)

• If I were you

Often used giving advice to someone

The first part of a second conditional sentence

In colloquial English we often use “If I were in your shoes” when the person receiving the advice is in a difficult or uncomfortable situation

 

• Cleft sentences

- what … is/was …

 

	I want		a new book
What	I want	is	a new book

 

My car		makes all this noise
	What	makes all this noise	is	my car

 

- it is/was … that …

 

	I		want a new book
It is	me	that	want a new book

 

I want		a new book
	It is	a new book	that	I want

 

My brother	threw	a tomato	at	the fat singer		in our club		yesterday.
a		b		c		d		e

 

 

a. It was my brother THAT threw a tomato at the fat singer in our club yesterday.

b. It was a tomato THAT my brother threw at the fat singer in our club yesterday.

c. It was the fat singer THAT my brother threw a tomato at in our club yesterday.

d. It was in our club THAT my brother threw a tomato at the fat singer yesterday.

e. It was yesterday THAT my brother threw a tomato at the fat singer in our club.

 

 

• Contrast

- Even although/although/though

To introduce a contrast

After them we use a clause, with a subject and a verb

“Even though” is more emphatic than “although” and “although” is more emphatic then “though”

Though is more informal style of although

We also use “though” to mean “however” at the and of the sentence

 

- In spite of/despite

To talk about a contrast

After them we use a noun or an –ing form

We also say in spite of/despite the fact (that)... (in spite of the fact that take weather was bad we went out for a walk)

 

- While

To introduce a contrast between two ideas

 

- Whereas

To introduce a contrast between two ideas

A conjunction which is used to contrast two things

Permits the other of the two clauses to be reserved

Similar to one of the uses of “while” but it is used to place more emphasis on the difference

 

- However

Express a contrast

 

- Whatever

Any thing

 

-Wherever

Any place

 

- Whoever

Any person

 

- Whenever

Any time

 

- Everything

All things

 

- Everywhere

All places

 

- Everyone

All people

 

- Every time

All times

• Past and Past Participle forms of regular verbs

- Consonant+y → change the “y” to “i” before adding “ed” (carry → carried)

- Consonant+vowel+y → only add “ed” (annoy → annoyed)

- Ends with “e” → only add “d” (advise → advised)

- One-syllable verb ends with consonant+vowel+consonant → double the final consonant before adding “ed”

(plan → planned)

- More than one syllable verb, the last syllable is pronounced more strongly then the others, ends with consonant+vowel+consonant → double the final consonant before adding “ed” (prefer → preferred)

- More than one syllable verb, the last syllable is pronounced as same strong as the others, ends with consonant+vowel+consonant → only add “ed” (visit → visited)

- Ends with “l” and the last syllable is not pronounced more strongly then the others, the final “l” is often doubled in British English but not in American English (cancel → canceled or in Br. Cancelled)

S+will+…+when/if/until+present simple

S+V2+...+when+S+was/were+Ving+...

Past cont. (situation)+when+past simple (event)

Past simple (event)+while+past cont. (situation)

 

Why don’t you → to convey suggestion

 

It’s about time+S+V2 → talk about something which should have already happened but hasn’t happened yet

(It’s about time the train came)

 

• References

- The Heinemann English Grammar

- Grammar in Action books, Wall Street Institute

- Cutting Edge Advance, Longman

- My own study and course notes